Carbon farming represents a strategic approach to enhancing agricultural sustainability while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In Türkiye, agriculture accounted for approximately 14.9% of national GHG emissions in 2023, dominated by methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). This study reviews and synthesizes international and national evidence on carbon farming mechanisms, practices, payment models, and adoption enablers and barriers, situating these insights within Türkiye's agroecological and institutional context. The findings indicate substantial mitigation potential from soil-based practices and livestock- and manure-related measures, yet limited uptake due to low awareness, capacity constraints, financial and administrative barriers, and regulatory gaps. To support implementation and scaling, the study proposes a policy-oriented, regionally differentiated and digitally enabled MRV framework and an associated implementation pathway designed to reduce transaction costs, enhance farmer participation, and enable integration with emerging carbon market mechanisms.
Funded by the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) Convergence Contract #49100425C0009.
Average soil organic carbon (SOC) content in Türkiye is relatively low compared to the European average, presenting both a challenge and an opportunity for expanding carbon sequestration.
The paper synthesizes evidence on six categories of carbon farming practices and their applicability to Türkiye.
Conservation/reduced tillage, cover cropping, crop rotations, organic inputs, biochar. A long-term field experiment (2006–2014) in Adana found no-tillage increased soil aggregate mean weight diameter by 137–204% and raised surface SOC compared to conventional tillage.
Efficient irrigation reduces GHG emissions from pumping energy and soil-based N2O/CH4. Key methods: off-grid solar pumps, drip irrigation, AWD for rice, direct seeding. Drip irrigation is central to the carbon-water nexus in Türkiye.
Olive-based systems, vineyard-forest interface zones, alley cropping. Increases above/belowground biomass carbon. Co-benefits include shade, microclimate regulation, income diversification.
Feed additives, anaerobic digestion for biogas, composting. İzmir study: livestock GHG at 2,826.5 tCO2eq — sustainable manure practices could cut emissions by 30%.
Pay for adopting practices. Low MRV cost but uncertain GHG outcomes. E.g., EU CAP Pillar 2.
Pay for verified outcomes. Performance-oriented but costly MRV. Carbon price volatility risk.
Upfront + result payments. Balances farmer risk with accountability. Recommended for Türkiye.
Three delivery mechanisms are analyzed: land-management practice payments (public, EU CAP-style), corporate supply chains (e.g., Arla Foods FarmAhead™), and voluntary carbon markets (Verra VCS, Gold Standard, puro.earth). Each offers distinct tradeoffs in financing, accessibility, and MRV requirements.
Economic: High administrative costs, complex certification, MRV transaction costs that reduce net returns for smallholders.
Technical: Context-specific mitigation outcomes, difficulty demonstrating additionality, leakage risks.
Structural: Fragmented land holdings, limited machinery access, regional disparities in extension services, digital infrastructure gaps.
Institutional: Absence of national carbon certification framework, policy instability, limited farmer awareness.
Economic: Stronger incentive mechanisms, subsidies, low-interest loans, carbon credit income. Integration with existing agricultural support schemes.
Social: Capacity-building, training, peer-to-peer learning through cooperatives. Recognition of co-benefits (soil health, biodiversity, water retention).
Technical: Drip fertigation naturally reduces fertilizer use. SDI adoption inherently reduces tillage needs.
Policy: Türkiye's Climate Law (July 2025), emerging TR ETS, Draft Carbon Credit Regulation.
The paper emphasizes that a "one-size-fits-all" model will not work. Carbon farming must be regionally differentiated.
Agroforestry and biochar applications. Fits perennial crop systems and high biomass availability.
Conservation tillage and cover cropping. Suited to widespread cereal cultivation and existing subsidy schemes.
Rotational grazing. Greatest potential for sustainable livestock management.
The paper's principal contribution: a policy-oriented, regionally differentiated MRV framework with a phased implementation pathway.
Field-level measurements, soil sampling, remote sensing (satellite, GIS), farmer self-reporting. Linked to existing agricultural production planning and registration systems for data interoperability.
Standardized reporting frameworks using digital platforms. Mobile applications and online tools to facilitate farmer participation. AI-powered analytical tools for carbon stock change estimation.
Independent nationally and internationally accredited bodies. Prioritizes traceability, data reliability, and transparency. Field-level measurements verified against model-based estimates.
Phase 1: Pilot projects in Aegean, Central Anatolia, and Southeastern Anatolia. Low-cost practices, farmer self-reporting + limited field measurements.
Phase 2: Digital tools and model-based estimation. Aggregation mechanisms to reduce per-farm costs.
Phase 3: Full integration with Türkiye's carbon credit market and TR ETS.
Law No. 7552 establishes the legal foundation for the Turkish Emissions Trading System (TR ETS). Phased, inclusive approach covering emission-intensive sectors. Revenues allocated toward low-carbon development and just transition. Expected to significantly increase demand for carbon farming.
Draft Regulation on Carbon Credit and Offsetting and Draft Regulation on the Turkish ETS are under public consultation. These will form the core of Türkiye's carbon market system. Integration with carbon farming MRV is fundamental.
1. Carbon farming in Türkiye has significant mitigation and adaptation potential, particularly through soil-based practices and improved livestock/manure management, yet adoption is constrained by economic, institutional, and technical barriers.
2. Scalability depends on cost-effective, regionally adapted MRV systems that reduce transaction costs and support farmer participation.
3. Policy coherence—especially alignment with agricultural support schemes and emerging carbon market mechanisms—is essential to ensure environmental integrity and economic viability.